![]() Psychological/behavioral outputs related to the abovementioned changes are increased comfort, relaxation, pleasantness, vigor and alertness, and reduced symptoms of arousal, anxiety, depression, anger, and confusion.Ĭonclusions: Slow breathing techniques act enhancing autonomic, cerebral and psychological flexibility in a scenario of mutual interactions: we found evidence of links between parasympathetic activity (increased HRV and LF power), CNS activities (increased EEG alpha power and decreased EEG theta power) related to emotional control and psychological well-being in healthy subjects. Anatomically, the only available fMRI study highlights increased activity in cortical (e.g., prefrontal, motor, and parietal cortices) and subcortical (e.g., pons, thalamus, sub-parabrachial nucleus, periaqueductal gray, and hypothalamus) structures. EEG studies show an increase in alpha and a decrease in theta power. Slow breathing techniques promote autonomic changes increasing Heart Rate Variability and Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia paralleled by Central Nervous System (CNS) activity modifications. Results: The main effects of slow breathing techniques cover autonomic and central nervous systems activities as well as the psychological status. The present systematic review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. From a pool of 2,461 abstracts only 15 articles met eligibility criteria and were included in the review. Methods: A systematic search of MEDLINE and SCOPUS databases, using keywords related to both breathing techniques and to their psychophysiological outcomes, focusing on cardio-respiratory and central nervous system, has been conducted. ![]() This systematic review is aimed at unveiling psychophysiological mechanisms underlying slow breathing techniques (<10 breaths/minute) and their effects on healthy subjects. However, the identification of mechanisms linking breath control to its psychophysiological effects is still under debate. 6Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Pisana, Pisa, Italyīackground: The psycho-physiological changes in brain-body interaction observed in most of meditative and relaxing practices rely on voluntary slowing down of breath frequency. ![]() 5Department of Information Engineering, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.4Nuovo Ospedale degli Infermi, Biella, Italy.3National Research Council, Institute of Clinical Physiology, Pisa, Italy.2Coma Science Group, GIGA Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.1Department of Surgical, Medical, Molecular and Critical Area Pathology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.Andrea Zaccaro 1, Andrea Piarulli 1,2, Marco Laurino 3, Erika Garbella 4, Danilo Menicucci 1, Bruno Neri 5 and Angelo Gemignani 1,3,6 *
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